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<p>In <a href="Semantics" title="Semantics">semantics</a>, <a href="Mathematical_logic" title="Mathematical logic">mathematical logic</a> and related disciplines, the <b>principle of compositionality</b> is the principle that the meaning of a complex expression is determined by the meanings of its constituent expressions and the rules used to combine them. The principle is also called <b>Frege's principle</b>, because <a href="Gottlob_Frege" title="Gottlob Frege">Gottlob Frege</a> is widely credited for the first modern formulation of it. However, the principle has never been explicitly stated by Frege,<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and arguably it was already assumed by <a href="George_Boole" title="George Boole">George Boole</a><sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> decades before Frege's work.

</p><p>The principle of compositionality (also known as <b>semantic compositionalism</b>) is highly debated in linguistics. Among its most challenging problems there are the issues of <a href="Context_(language_use)" class="mw-redirect" title="Context (language use)">contextuality</a>, the non-compositionality of <a href="Idiomatic_expression" class="mw-redirect" title="Idiomatic expression">idiomatic expressions</a>, and the non-compositionality of <a href="Quotation" title="Quotation">quotations</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Pelletier2016sec12_3-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Pelletier2016sec12-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History">History</h2></div>

<p>Discussion of compositionality started to appear at the beginning of the 19th century, during which it was debated whether what was most fundamental in language was compositionality or <a href="Context_(language_use)" class="mw-redirect" title="Context (language use)">contextuality</a>, and compositionality was usually preferred.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_4-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="Gottlob_Frege" title="Gottlob Frege">Gottlob Frege</a> never adhered to the principle of compositionality as it is known today (Frege endorsed the <a href="Context_principle" title="Context principle">context principle</a> instead), and the first to explicitly formulate it was <a href="Rudolf_Carnap" title="Rudolf Carnap">Rudolf Carnap</a> in 1947.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_4-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Overview">Overview</h2></div>

<p>A common formulation<sup id="cite_ref-:0_4-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> of the principle of compositionality comes from <a href="Barbara_Partee" class="mw-redirect" title="Barbara Partee">Barbara Partee</a>, stating: "The meaning of a compound expression is a function of the meanings of its parts and of the way they are syntactically combined."<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p><p>It is possible to distinguish different levels of compositionality. Strong compositionality refers to compound expressions that are determined by the meaning of its <i>immediate</i> parts and a top-level syntactic function that describes their combination. Weak compositionality refers to compound expressions that are determined by the meaning of its parts as well as their complete syntactic combination.<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-:1_7-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, there can also be further gradations in between these two extremes. This is possible, if one not only allows the meaning of immediate parts but also the meaning of the second-highest parts (third-highest parts, fourth-highest parts, etc.) together with functions that describes their respective combinations.<sup id="cite_ref-:1_7-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p><p>On a sentence level, the principle claims that what remains if one removes the <a href="Lexical_(semiotics)" class="mw-redirect" title="Lexical (semiotics)">lexical</a> parts of a meaningful <a href="Sentence_(linguistics)" title="Sentence (linguistics)">sentence</a>, are the rules of composition. The sentence "Socrates was a man", for example, becomes "S was a M" once the meaningful lexical items—"Socrates" and "man"—are taken away. The task of finding the rules of composition, then becomes a matter of describing what the connection between S and M is.

</p><p>Among the most prominent linguistic problems that challenge the principle of compositionality are the issues of <a href="Context_(language_use)" class="mw-redirect" title="Context (language use)">contextuality</a>, the non compositionality of <a href="Idiomatic_expression" class="mw-redirect" title="Idiomatic expression">idiomatic expressions</a>, and the non compositionality of <a href="Quotation" title="Quotation">quotations</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Pelletier2016sec12_3-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Pelletier2016sec12-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p><p>It is frequently taken to mean that every operation of the <a href="Syntax" title="Syntax">syntax</a> should be associated with an operation of the semantics that acts on the meanings of the constituents combined by the syntactic operation. As a guideline for constructing semantic theories, this is generally taken, as in the influential work on the philosophy of language by <a href="Donald_Davidson_(philosopher)" title="Donald Davidson (philosopher)">Donald Davidson</a>, to mean that every construct of the syntax should be associated by a clause of the <a href="T-schema" title="T-schema">T-schema</a> with an operator in the semantics that specifies how the meaning of the whole expression is built from constituents combined by the syntactic rule. In some general mathematical theories (especially those in the tradition of <a href="Montague_grammar" title="Montague grammar">Montague grammar</a>), this guideline is taken to mean that the interpretation of a language is essentially given by a <a href="Homomorphism" title="Homomorphism">homomorphism</a> between an algebra of syntactic representations and an algebra of semantic objects.

</p><p>The principle of compositionality also exists in a similar form in the <a href="Denotational_semantics#Compositionality" title="Denotational semantics">compositionality of programming languages</a>.

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Critiques">Critiques</h2></div>

<p>The principle of compositionality has been the subject of intense debate. Indeed, there is no general agreement as to how the principle is to be interpreted, although there have been several attempts to provide formal definitions of it.<sup id="cite_ref-Szabó2012_8-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Szabó2012-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p><p>Scholars are also divided as to whether the principle should be regarded as a factual claim, open to <a href="Empirical" class="mw-redirect" title="Empirical">empirical</a> testing; an <a href="Logical_truth" title="Logical truth">analytic truth</a>, obvious from the nature of language and meaning; or a <a href="Methodology" title="Methodology">methodological</a> principle to guide the development of theories of syntax and semantics. The Principle of Compositionality has been attacked in all three spheres, although so far none of the criticisms brought against it have been generally regarded as compelling. Most proponents of the principle, however, make certain exceptions for <a href="Idiomatic" class="mw-redirect" title="Idiomatic">idiomatic</a> expressions in natural language.<sup id="cite_ref-Szabó2012_8-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Szabó2012-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p><p>The principle of compositionality usually holds when only syntactic factors play in the increased complexity of <a href="Sentence_processing" title="Sentence processing">sentence processing</a>, while it becomes more problematic and questionable when the complexity increase is due to sentence or discourse <a href="Context_(language_use)" class="mw-redirect" title="Context (language use)">context</a>, <a href="Semantic_memory" title="Semantic memory">semantic memory</a>, or <a href="Sensory_cue" title="Sensory cue">sensory cues</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Among the problematic phenomena for traditional theories of compositionality is that of logical metonymy, which has been studied at least since the mid 1990s by linguists <a href="James_Pustejovsky" title="James Pustejovsky">James Pustejovsky</a> and <a href="Ray_Jackendoff" title="Ray Jackendoff">Ray Jackendoff</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Chersoni2017_10-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Chersoni2017-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Logical metonymies are sentences like <i>John began the book</i>, where the verb <i>to begin</i> requires (<a href="Subcategorization" title="Subcategorization">subcategorizes</a>) an event as its argument, but in a logical metonymy an object (i.e. <i>the book</i>) is found instead, and this forces to interpret the sentence by inferring an implicit event ("reading", "writing", or other prototypical actions performed on a book).<sup id="cite_ref-Chersoni2017_10-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Chersoni2017-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The problem for compositionality is that the meaning of reading or writing is not present in the words of the sentence, neither in "begin" nor in "book".

</p><p>Further, in the context of the philosophy of language, the principle of compositionality does not explain all of meaning. For example, you cannot infer <a href="Sarcasm" title="Sarcasm">sarcasm</a> purely on the basis of words and their composition, yet a phrase used sarcastically means something completely different from the same phrase uttered straightforwardly. Thus, some theorists argue that the principle has to be revised to take into account linguistic and extralinguistic <a href="Context_principle" title="Context principle">context</a>, which includes the tone of voice used, common ground between the speakers, the intentions of the speaker, and so on.<sup id="cite_ref-Szabó2012_8-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Szabó2012-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p>

<ul><li><a href="Componential_analysis" title="Componential analysis">Componential analysis</a></li>

<li><a href="Context_principle" title="Context principle">Context principle</a></li>

<li><a href="Semantics_(computer_science)" title="Semantics (computer science)">Semantics (computer science)</a></li>

<li><a href="Semantics_of_logic" title="Semantics of logic">Semantics of logic</a></li>

<li><a href="Garden-path_sentence" title="Garden-path sentence">Garden-path sentence</a></li>

<li><a href="Initial_algebra" title="Initial algebra">Initial algebra</a></li>

<li><a href="Levels_of_Processing_model" class="mw-redirect" title="Levels of Processing model">Levels of Processing model</a></li>

<li><a href="Opaque_context" title="Opaque context">Opaque context</a> — another problem for compositionality</li>

<li><a href="Referential_transparency" title="Referential transparency">Referential transparency</a> — in programming languages</li>

<li><a href="Semantic_decomposition_(natural_language_processing)" title="Semantic decomposition (natural language processing)">Semantic decomposition (natural language processing)</a></li></ul>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Notes">Notes</h2></div>

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</style><cite id="CITEREFPelletier2001" class="citation journal cs1">Pelletier, Francis Jeffry (2001). <span class="id-lock-subscription" title="Paid subscription required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://link.springer.com/10.1023/A:1026594023292">"Did Frege Believe Frege's Principle?"</a></span>. <i>Journal of Logic, Language and Information</i>. <b>10</b> (1): <span class="nowrap">87–</span>114. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1023%2FA%3A1026594023292">10.1023/A:1026594023292</a>.</cite></span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Boole, G. (1854). <i>An investigation of the laws of thought: on which are founded the mathematical theories of logic and probabilities</i>. Walton and Maberly.</span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-Pelletier2016sec12-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Pelletier2016sec12_3-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Pelletier2016sec12_3-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Pelletier (2016) section <i>"12 This Chapter"</i></span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-:0-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:0_4-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:0_4-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:0_4-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFJanssen2012" class="citation journal cs1">Janssen, Theo (2012). <span class="id-lock-subscription" title="Paid subscription required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://academic.oup.com/edited-volume/41264/chapter/350861043">"Compositionality: Its Historic Context"</a></span>. <i>Oxford Handbook of Compositionality</i>: <span class="nowrap">19–</span>46. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1093%2Foxfordhb%2F9780199541072.013.0001">10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199541072.013.0001</a>.</cite></span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFPartee1984" class="citation journal cs1">Partee, Barbara (1984). "Compositionality". <i>Varieties of Formal Semantics</i>. <b>3</b>: <span class="nowrap">281–</span>311.</cite></span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFCoopmansKaushikMartin2023" class="citation journal cs1">Coopmans, Cas W.; Kaushik, Karthikeya; Martin, Andrea E. (2023). <span class="id-lock-subscription" title="Paid subscription required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://doi.apa.org/getdoi.cfm?doi=10.1037/rev0000429">"Hierarchical structure in language and action: A formal comparison"</a></span>. <i>Psychological Review</i>. <b>130</b> (4): <span class="nowrap">935–</span>952. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1037%2Frev0000429">10.1037/rev0000429</a>. <a href="ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1939-1471">1939-1471</a>. <a href="PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/37166848">37166848</a>.</cite></span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-:1-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:1_7-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:1_7-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFPaginWesterståhl2010" class="citation journal cs1">Pagin, Peter; Westerståhl, Dag (2010). <span class="id-lock-subscription" title="Paid subscription required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1747-9991.2009.00228.x">"Compositionality I: Definitions and Variants"</a></span>. <i>Philosophy Compass</i>. <b>5</b> (3): <span class="nowrap">250–</span>264. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fj.1747-9991.2009.00228.x">10.1111/j.1747-9991.2009.00228.x</a>.</cite></span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-Szabó2012-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Szabó2012_8-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Szabó2012_8-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Szabó2012_8-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Szabó, Zoltán Gendler (2012) "<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20130117194209/https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/compositionality/">Compositionality</a>". In Zalta, Edward N. (ed.). Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. First published Thu Apr 8, 2004; substantive revision Fri Dec 7, 2012</span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Baggio et al. (2012), Conclusions.</span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-Chersoni2017-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Chersoni2017_10-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Chersoni2017_10-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Chersoni, E., Lenci, A., & Blache, P. (2017, August). <i><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/hal-01572187/">Logical metonymy in a distributional model of sentence comprehension</a></i>. In Sixth Joint Conference on Lexical and Computational Semantics (* SEM 2017) (pp. 168-177).</span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-11">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">James Pustejovsky. 1995. The Generative Lexicon. The MIT Press, Cambridge, MA</span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-12">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Ray Jackendoff. 1997. The Architecture of the Language Faculty. The MIT Press, Cambridge, MA.</span>

</li>

</ol></div></div>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2></div>

<ul><li>Baggio, G., Van Lambalgen, M., & Hagoort, P. (2012) <i><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pure.mpg.de/rest/items/item_66821_17/component/file_933167/content">The processing consequences of compositionality</a></i>, in M. Werning, W. Hinzen, & E. Machery (Eds.), <i><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=-UYfAQAAQBAJ&pg=PA655">The Oxford handbook of compositionality</a></i> (pp. 655–672).</li>

<li>Janssen, T. M. (2012) <i><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pure.uva.nl/ws/files/1159272/105371_HandbookJanssen.pdf">Compositionality: Its historic context</a></i>, in M. Werning, W. Hinzen, & E. Machery (Eds.), <i><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=-UYfAQAAQBAJ&pg=PA655">The Oxford handbook of compositionality</a></i>, pp. 19–46, Oxford University Press.</li>

<li>Pelletier, Francis Jeffry (2001) <i><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.sfu.ca/~jeffpell/papers/FregesPrinciplePublished.pdf">Did Frege believe Frege’s principle?</a></i>, in <i>Journal of Logic, Language and Information</i> 10:87–114.</li>

<li>Pelletier, Francis Jeffry (2016) <i><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://oxfordre.com/linguistics/view/10.1093/acrefore/9780199384655.001.0001/acrefore-9780199384655-e-42?rskey=tdaoHr&result=54">Semantic Compositionality</a></i> in <a href="Mark_Aronoff" title="Mark Aronoff">M. Aronoff</a> (ed) <i><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://oxfordre.com/linguistics/">The Oxford Research Encyclopedia of Linguistics</a></i>, Oxford UP.</li></ul>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2></div>

<ul><li>Ferreira, F., Bailey, K. G., & Ferraro, V. (2002). <i><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www2.psychology.uiowa.edu/faculty/hollingworth/prosem/Ferreira-2002-Good-enough%20represen.pdf">Good-enough representations in language comprehension</a></i> in <i>Current directions in psychological science</i>, 11(1), 11-15.</li>

<li>Ferreira, F., & Patson, N. D. (2007). <i><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.lib.csu.ru/ER/ER_Philosophy/fulltexts/FerreiraF.pdf">The ‘good enough’approach to language comprehension</a></i> in <i>Language and Linguistics Compass</i>, 1(1‐2), 71-83.</li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFSzabó" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">Szabó, Zoltán Gendler. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/compositionality/">"Compositionality"</a>. In <a href="Edward_N._Zalta" title="Edward N. Zalta">Zalta, Edward N.</a> (ed.). <i><a href="Stanford_Encyclopedia_of_Philosophy" title="Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy">Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy</a></i>.</cite> (2004) revisions in <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20060914153422/https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/compositionality/">2005</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20070609104112/http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/compositionality/">2007</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20130117194209/https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/compositionality/">2012</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20171211045030/https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/compositionality/">2017</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20201101133238/https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/compositionality/">2020</a>.</li>

<li>Werning, Markus; & Edouard Machery, & Gerhard Schurz (Eds., 2004) <i><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://ontosverlag.de/index.php?page=shop.product_details&flypage=flypage.tpl&product_id=86&category_id=10&option=com_virtuemart&Itemid=1">The Compositionality of Meaning and Content</a></i>, Vol. I & II, Ontos</li>

<li>Werning, Markus; & Wolfram Hinzen, & Edouard Machery (Eds., 2012) <i><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://ukcatalogue.oup.com/product/9780199541072.do">The Oxford Handbook of Compositionality</a></i>, Oxford University Press</li></ul>

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<ul><li><a href="Confucius" title="Confucius">Confucius</a></li>

<li><a href="Gorgias" title="Gorgias">Gorgias</a></li>

<li><a href="Cratylus" title="Cratylus">Cratylus</a></li>

<li><a href="Plato" title="Plato">Plato</a></li>

<li><a href="Aristotle" title="Aristotle">Aristotle</a></li>

<li><a href="Eubulides" title="Eubulides">Eubulides</a></li>

<li><a href="Diodorus_Cronus" title="Diodorus Cronus">Diodorus</a></li>

<li><a href="Chrysippus" title="Chrysippus">Chrysippus</a></li>

<li><a href="Zhuang_Zhou" title="Zhuang Zhou">Zhuangzi</a></li>

<li><a href="Xunzi_(philosopher)" title="Xunzi (philosopher)">Xunzi</a></li>

<li><a href="Averroes" title="Averroes">Averroes</a></li>

<li><a href="Ibn_Khaldun" title="Ibn Khaldun">Ibn Khaldun</a></li>

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<li><a href="John_Wilkins" title="John Wilkins">Wilkins</a></li>

<li><a href="Antoine_Arnauld" title="Antoine Arnauld">Arnauld</a></li>

<li><a href="Claude_Lancelot" title="Claude Lancelot">Lancelot</a></li>

<li><a href="Gottfried_Wilhelm_Leibniz" title="Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz">Leibniz</a></li>

<li><a href="George_Berkeley" title="George Berkeley">Berkeley</a></li>

<li><a href="Johann_Gottfried_Herder" title="Johann Gottfried Herder">Herder</a></li>

<li><a href="Wilhelm_von_Humboldt" title="Wilhelm von Humboldt">von Humboldt</a></li>

<li><a href="Fritz_Mauthner" title="Fritz Mauthner">Mauthner</a></li>

<li><a href="Paul_Ric%C5%93ur" title="Paul Ricœur">Ricœur</a></li>

<li><a href="Ferdinand_de_Saussure" title="Ferdinand de Saussure">de Saussure</a></li>

<li><a href="Gottlob_Frege" title="Gottlob Frege">Frege</a></li>

<li><a href="Paul_Tillich" title="Paul Tillich">Tillich</a></li>

<li><a href="Edward_Sapir" title="Edward Sapir">Sapir</a></li>

<li><a href="Leonard_Bloomfield" title="Leonard Bloomfield">Bloomfield</a></li>

<li><a href="Henri_Bergson" title="Henri Bergson">Bergson</a></li>

<li><a href="Lev_Vygotsky" title="Lev Vygotsky">Vygotsky</a></li>

<li><a href="Ludwig_Wittgenstein" title="Ludwig Wittgenstein">Wittgenstein</a></li>

<li><a href="Bertrand_Russell" title="Bertrand Russell">Russell</a></li>

<li><a href="Rudolf_Carnap" title="Rudolf Carnap">Carnap</a></li>

<li><a href="Jacques_Derrida" title="Jacques Derrida">Derrida</a></li>

<li><a href="Benjamin_Lee_Whorf" title="Benjamin Lee Whorf">Whorf</a></li>

<li><a href="J._L._Austin" title="J. L. Austin">Austin</a></li>

<li><a href="Noam_Chomsky" title="Noam Chomsky">Chomsky</a></li>

<li><a href="Hans-Georg_Gadamer" title="Hans-Georg Gadamer">Gadamer</a></li>

<li><a href="Saul_Kripke" title="Saul Kripke">Kripke</a></li>

<li><a href="G._E._M._Anscombe" title="G. E. M. Anscombe">Anscombe</a></li>

<li><a href="Jaakko_Hintikka" title="Jaakko Hintikka">Hintikka</a></li>

<li><a href="Michael_Dummett" title="Michael Dummett">Dummett</a></li>

<li><a href="Donald_Davidson_(philosopher)" title="Donald Davidson (philosopher)">Davidson</a></li>

<li><a href="Paul_Grice" title="Paul Grice">Grice</a></li>

<li><a href="P._F._Strawson" title="P. F. Strawson">Strawson</a></li>

<li><a href="Willard_Van_Orman_Quine" title="Willard Van Orman Quine">Quine</a></li>

<li><a href="Hilary_Putnam" title="Hilary Putnam">Putnam</a></li>

<li><a href="David_Lewis_(philosopher)" title="David Lewis (philosopher)">Lewis</a></li>

<li><a href="John_Searle" title="John Searle">Searle</a></li>

<li><a href="Paul_Watzlawick" title="Paul Watzlawick">Watzlawick</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Theories</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Causal_theory_of_reference" title="Causal theory of reference">Causal theory of reference</a></li>

<li><a href="Contrastivism" title="Contrastivism">Contrast theory of meaning</a></li>

<li><a href="Contrastivism" title="Contrastivism">Contrastivism</a></li>

<li><a href="Conventionalism" title="Conventionalism">Conventionalism</a></li>

<li><a href="Cratylism" title="Cratylism">Cratylism</a></li>

<li><a href="Deconstruction" title="Deconstruction">Deconstruction</a></li>

<li><a href="Descriptivist_theory_of_names" title="Descriptivist theory of names">Descriptivism</a></li>

<li><a href="Direct_reference_theory" title="Direct reference theory">Direct reference theory</a></li>

<li><a href="Dramatism" title="Dramatism">Dramatism</a></li>

<li><a href="Dynamic_semantics" title="Dynamic semantics">Dynamic semantics</a></li>

<li><a href="Expressivism" title="Expressivism">Expressivism</a></li>

<li><a href="Inquisitive_semantics" title="Inquisitive semantics">Inquisitive semantics</a></li>

<li><a href="Linguistic_determinism" title="Linguistic determinism">Linguistic determinism</a></li>

<li><a href="Mediated_reference_theory" title="Mediated reference theory">Mediated reference theory</a></li>

<li><a href="Nominalism" title="Nominalism">Nominalism</a></li>

<li><a href="Non-cognitivism" title="Non-cognitivism">Non-cognitivism</a></li>

<li><a href="Phallogocentrism" title="Phallogocentrism">Phallogocentrism</a></li>

<li><a href="Relevance_theory" title="Relevance theory">Relevance theory</a></li>

<li><a href="Semantic_externalism" title="Semantic externalism">Semantic externalism</a></li>

<li><a href="Semantic_holism" title="Semantic holism">Semantic holism</a></li>

<li><a href="Situation_semantics" title="Situation semantics">Situation semantics</a></li>

<li><a href="Structuralism" title="Structuralism">Structuralism</a></li>

<li><a href="Supposition_theory" title="Supposition theory">Supposition theory</a></li>

<li><a href="Symbiosism" title="Symbiosism">Symbiosism</a></li>

<li><a href="Theological_noncognitivism" title="Theological noncognitivism">Theological noncognitivism</a></li>

<li><a href="Theory_of_descriptions" title="Theory of descriptions">Theory of descriptions</a> (<a href="Definite_description" title="Definite description">Definite description</a>)</li>

<li><a href="Theory_of_language" title="Theory of language">Theory of language</a></li>

<li><a href="Unilalianism" title="Unilalianism">Unilalianism</a></li>

<li><a href="Verificationism" title="Verificationism">Verification theory</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Concepts</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Ambiguity" title="Ambiguity">Ambiguity</a></li>

<li><a href="Class_(philosophy)" title="Class (philosophy)">Class</a></li>

<li><a href="Concept" title="Concept">Concept</a></li>

<li><a href="Categorization" class="mw-redirect" title="Categorization">Categories</a></li>

<li><a href="Family_resemblance" title="Family resemblance">Family resemblance</a></li>

<li><a href="Intension" title="Intension">Intension</a></li>

<li><a href="Language" title="Language">Language</a></li>

<li><a href="Linguistic_relativity" title="Linguistic relativity">Linguistic relativity</a></li>

<li><a href="Logical_form" title="Logical form">Logical form</a></li>

<li><a href="Mental_representation" title="Mental representation">Mental representation</a></li>

<li><a href="Metalanguage" title="Metalanguage">Metalanguage</a></li>

<li><a href="Modality_(natural_language)" class="mw-redirect" title="Modality (natural language)">Modality (natural language)</a></li>

<li><a href="Presupposition" title="Presupposition">Presupposition</a></li>

<li><a href="Property_(philosophy)" title="Property (philosophy)">Property</a></li>

<li><a href="Proposition" title="Proposition">Proposition</a></li>

<li><a href="Sense_and_reference" title="Sense and reference">Sense and reference</a></li>

<li><a href="Sentence_(linguistics)" title="Sentence (linguistics)">Sentence</a></li>

<li><a href="Speech_act" title="Speech act">Speech act</a></li>

<li><a href="Statement_(logic)" class="mw-redirect" title="Statement (logic)">Statement</a></li>

<li><a href="Symbol" title="Symbol">Symbol</a></li>

<li><a href="Truth-bearer" title="Truth-bearer">Truth-bearer</a></li>

<li><a href="Use%E2%80%93mention_distinction" title="Use–mention distinction">Use–mention distinction</a></li>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Works</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><i><a href="Cratylus_(dialogue)" title="Cratylus (dialogue)">Cratylus</a></i> <span style="font-size: 85%;">(n.d.)</span></li>

<li><i><a href="Port-Royal_Grammar" title="Port-Royal Grammar">Port-Royal Grammar</a></i> <span style="font-size: 85%;">(1660)</span></li>

<li><i><a href="De_Arte_Combinatoria" title="De Arte Combinatoria">De Arte Combinatoria</a></i> <span style="font-size: 85%;">(1666)</span></li>

<li><i><a href="An_Essay_Towards_a_Real_Character%2C_and_a_Philosophical_Language" title="An Essay Towards a Real Character, and a Philosophical Language">An Essay Towards a Real Character, and a Philosophical Language</a></i> <span style="font-size: 85%;">(1668)</span></li>

<li><i><a href="Alciphron_(book)" title="Alciphron (book)">Alciphron</a></i> <span style="font-size: 85%;">(1732)</span></li>

<li>"<a href="On_Denoting" title="On Denoting">On Denoting</a>" <span style="font-size: 85%;">(1905)</span></li>

<li><i><a href="Tractatus_Logico-Philosophicus" title="Tractatus Logico-Philosophicus">Tractatus Logico-Philosophicus</a></i> <span style="font-size: 85%;">(1921)</span></li>

<li><i><a href="Language%2C_Truth%2C_and_Logic" title="Language, Truth, and Logic">Language, Truth, and Logic</a></i> <span style="font-size: 85%;">(1936)</span></li>

<li><i><a href="Two_Dogmas_of_Empiricism" title="Two Dogmas of Empiricism">Two Dogmas of Empiricism</a></i> <span style="font-size: 85%;">(1951)</span></li>

<li><i><a href="Philosophical_Investigations" title="Philosophical Investigations">Philosophical Investigations</a></i> <span style="font-size: 85%;">(1953)</span></li>

<li><i><a href="Of_Grammatology" title="Of Grammatology">Of Grammatology</a></i> <span style="font-size: 85%;">(1967)</span></li>

<li><i><a href="Naming_and_Necessity" title="Naming and Necessity">Naming and Necessity</a></i> <span style="font-size: 85%;">(1980)</span></li>

<li><i><a href="Wittgenstein_on_Rules_and_Private_Language" title="Wittgenstein on Rules and Private Language">Wittgenstein on Rules and Private Language</a></i> <span style="font-size: 85%;">(1982)</span></li>

<li><i><a href="Limited_Inc" title="Limited Inc">Limited Inc</a></i> <span style="font-size: 85%;">(1988)</span></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related articles</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Analytic_philosophy" title="Analytic philosophy">Analytic philosophy</a></li>

<li><a href="Philosophy_of_information" title="Philosophy of information">Philosophy of information</a></li>

<li><a href="Philosophical_logic" title="Philosophical logic">Philosophical logic</a></li>

<li><a href="Linguistics" title="Linguistics">Linguistics</a></li>

<li><a href="Pragmatics" title="Pragmatics">Pragmatics</a></li>

<li><a href="Rhetoric" title="Rhetoric">Rhetoric</a></li>

<li><a href="Scholasticism" title="Scholasticism">Scholasticism</a></li>

<li><a href="School_of_Names" title="School of Names">School of Names</a></li>

<li><a href="Semantics_(natural_language)" class="mw-redirect" title="Semantics (natural language)">Semantics</a>

<ul><li><a href="Formal_semantics_(linguistics)" class="mw-redirect" title="Formal semantics (linguistics)">Formal semantics</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Semiotics" title="Semiotics">Semiotics</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div>

<ul><li>Category</li>

<li>Task Force</li>

<li>Discussion</li></ul>

</div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>

<div class="navbox-styles"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Formal_semantics_(natural_language)78" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Formal_semantics_(natural_language)78" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="Formal_semantics_(natural_language)" title="Formal semantics (natural language)">Formal semantics (natural language)</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Central concepts</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul>

<li><a href="Denotation" title="Denotation">Denotation</a></li>

<li><a href="Linguistic_entailment" title="Linguistic entailment">Entailment</a></li>

<li><a href="Extension_(semantics)" title="Extension (semantics)">Extension</a></li>

<li><a href="Generalized_quantifier" title="Generalized quantifier">Generalized quantifier</a></li>

<li><a href="Intension" title="Intension">Intension</a></li>

<li><a href="Logical_form_(linguistics)" title="Logical form (linguistics)">Logical form</a></li>

<li><a href="Presupposition" title="Presupposition">Presupposition</a></li>

<li><a href="Proposition" title="Proposition">Proposition</a></li>

<li><a href="Reference" title="Reference">Reference</a></li>

<li><a href="Scope_(formal_semantics)" title="Scope (formal semantics)">Scope</a></li>

<li><a href="Speech_act" title="Speech act">Speech act</a></li>

<li><a href="Syntax%E2%80%93semantics_interface" title="Syntax–semantics interface">Syntax–semantics interface</a></li>

<li><a href="Truth-conditional_semantics" title="Truth-conditional semantics">Truth conditions</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Topics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Areas</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Anaphora_(linguistics)" title="Anaphora (linguistics)">Anaphora</a></li>

<li><a href="Ambiguity" title="Ambiguity">Ambiguity</a></li>

<li><a href="Binding_(linguistics)" title="Binding (linguistics)">Binding</a></li>

<li><a href="Conditional_sentence" title="Conditional sentence">Conditionals</a></li>

<li><a href="Definiteness" title="Definiteness">Definiteness</a></li>

<li><a href="Disjunction" class="mw-redirect" title="Disjunction">Disjunction</a></li>

<li><a href="Evidentiality" title="Evidentiality">Evidentiality</a></li>

<li><a href="Focus_(linguistics)" title="Focus (linguistics)">Focus</a></li>

<li><a href="Indexicality" title="Indexicality">Indexicality</a></li>

<li><a href="Lexical_semantics" title="Lexical semantics">Lexical semantics</a></li>

<li><a href="Linguistic_modality" class="mw-redirect" title="Linguistic modality">Modality</a></li>

<li><a href="Negation" title="Negation">Negation</a></li>

<li><a href="Propositional_attitudes" class="mw-redirect" title="Propositional attitudes">Propositional attitudes</a></li>

<li><a href="Tense%E2%80%93aspect%E2%80%93mood" title="Tense–aspect–mood">Tense–aspect–mood</a></li>

<li><a href="Quantifier_(logic)" title="Quantifier (logic)">Quantification</a></li>

<li><a href="Vagueness" title="Vagueness">Vagueness</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Phenomena</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Antecedent-contained_deletion" title="Antecedent-contained deletion">Antecedent-contained deletion</a></li>

<li><a href="Cataphora" title="Cataphora">Cataphora</a></li>

<li><a href="Coercion_(linguistics)" title="Coercion (linguistics)">Coercion</a></li>

<li><a href="Conservativity" title="Conservativity">Conservativity</a></li>

<li><a href="Counterfactuals" class="mw-redirect" title="Counterfactuals">Counterfactuals</a></li>

<li><a href="Crossover_effects" title="Crossover effects">Crossover effects</a></li>

<li><a href="Cumulativity_(linguistics)" title="Cumulativity (linguistics)">Cumulativity</a></li>

<li><a href="De_dicto_and_de_re" title="De dicto and de re">De dicto and de re</a></li>

<li><a href="Deontic_modality" title="Deontic modality">Deontic modality</a></li>

<li><a href="Discourse_relation" title="Discourse relation">Discourse relations</a></li>

<li><a href="Donkey_anaphora" class="mw-redirect" title="Donkey anaphora">Donkey anaphora</a></li>

<li><a href="Epistemic_modality" title="Epistemic modality">Epistemic modality</a></li>

<li><a href="Exhaustivity" title="Exhaustivity">Exhaustivity</a></li>

<li><a href="Faultless_disagreement" title="Faultless disagreement">Faultless disagreement</a></li>

<li><a href="Free_choice_inference" title="Free choice inference">Free choice inferences</a></li>

<li><a href="Givenness" title="Givenness">Givenness</a></li>

<li><a href="Homogeneity_(linguistics)" class="mw-redirect" title="Homogeneity (linguistics)">Homogeneity (linguistics)</a></li>

<li><a href="Hurford_disjunction" title="Hurford disjunction">Hurford disjunction</a></li>

<li><a href="Inalienable_possession" title="Inalienable possession">Inalienable possession</a></li>

<li><a href="Intersective_modifier" title="Intersective modifier">Intersective modification</a></li>

<li><a href="Logophoricity" title="Logophoricity">Logophoricity</a></li>

<li><a href="Mirativity" title="Mirativity">Mirativity</a></li>

<li><a href="Modal_subordination" title="Modal subordination">Modal subordination</a></li>

<li><a href="Opaque_context" title="Opaque context">Opaque contexts</a></li>

<li><a href="Performative_utterance" title="Performative utterance">Performatives</a></li>

<li><a href="Polarity_item" title="Polarity item">Polarity items</a></li>

<li><a href="Privative_adjective" title="Privative adjective">Privative adjectives</a></li>

<li><a href="Quantificational_variability_effect" title="Quantificational variability effect">Quantificational variability effect</a></li>

<li><a href="Responsive_predicate" title="Responsive predicate">Responsive predicate</a></li>

<li><a href="Rising_declarative" title="Rising declarative">Rising declaratives</a></li>

<li><a href="Scalar_implicature" title="Scalar implicature">Scalar implicature</a></li>

<li><a href="Sloppy_identity" title="Sloppy identity">Sloppy identity</a></li>

<li><a href="Subsective_modifier" title="Subsective modifier">Subsective modification</a></li>

<li><a href="Subtrigging" title="Subtrigging">Subtrigging</a></li>

<li><a href="Telicity" title="Telicity">Telicity</a></li>

<li><a href="Temperature_paradox" title="Temperature paradox">Temperature paradox</a></li>

<li><a href="Veridicality" title="Veridicality">Veridicality</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Formalism</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Formal systems</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Alternative_semantics" title="Alternative semantics">Alternative semantics</a></li>

<li><a href="Categorial_grammar" title="Categorial grammar">Categorial grammar</a></li>

<li><a href="Combinatory_categorial_grammar" title="Combinatory categorial grammar">Combinatory categorial grammar</a></li>

<li><a href="Discourse_representation_theory" title="Discourse representation theory">Discourse representation theory (DRT)</a></li>

<li><a href="Dynamic_semantics" title="Dynamic semantics">Dynamic semantics</a></li>

<li><a href="Generative_grammar" title="Generative grammar">Generative grammar</a></li>

<li><a href="Glue_semantics" title="Glue semantics">Glue semantics</a></li>

<li><a href="Inquisitive_semantics" title="Inquisitive semantics">Inquisitive semantics</a></li>

<li><a href="Intensional_logic" title="Intensional logic">Intensional logic</a></li>

<li><a href="Lambda_calculus" title="Lambda calculus">Lambda calculus</a></li>

<li><a href="Mereology" title="Mereology">Mereology</a></li>

<li><a href="Montague_grammar" title="Montague grammar">Montague grammar</a></li>

<li><a href="Segmented_discourse_representation_theory" class="mw-redirect" title="Segmented discourse representation theory">Segmented discourse representation theory (SDRT)</a></li>

<li><a href="Situation_semantics" title="Situation semantics">Situation semantics</a></li>

<li><a href="Supervaluationism" title="Supervaluationism">Supervaluationism</a></li>

<li><a href="Type_theory" title="Type theory">Type theory</a></li>

<ul><li><a href="Autonomy_of_syntax" title="Autonomy of syntax">Autonomy of syntax</a></li>

<li><a href="Context_set" class="mw-redirect" title="Context set">Context set</a></li>

<li><a href="Continuation" title="Continuation">Continuation</a></li>

<li><a href="Conversational_scoreboard" title="Conversational scoreboard">Conversational scoreboard</a></li>

<li><a href="Downward_entailing" title="Downward entailing">Downward entailing</a></li>

<li><a href="Existential_closure" title="Existential closure">Existential closure</a></li>

<li><a href="Function_application" title="Function application">Function application</a></li>

<li><a href="Meaning_postulate" title="Meaning postulate">Meaning postulate</a></li>

<li><a href="Monad_(functional_programming)" title="Monad (functional programming)">Monads</a></li>

<li><a href="Plural_quantification" title="Plural quantification">Plural quantification</a></li>

<li><a href="Possible_world" title="Possible world">Possible world</a></li>

<li><a href="Quantifier_raising" class="mw-redirect" title="Quantifier raising">Quantifier raising</a></li>

<li><a href="Quantization_(linguistics)" title="Quantization (linguistics)">Quantization</a></li>

<li><a href="Question_under_discussion" title="Question under discussion">Question under discussion</a></li>

<li><a href="Semantic_parsing" title="Semantic parsing">Semantic parsing</a></li>

<li><a href="Squiggle_operator" title="Squiggle operator">Squiggle operator</a></li>

<li><a href="Strawson_entailment" title="Strawson entailment">Strawson entailment</a></li>

<li><a href="Strict_conditional" title="Strict conditional">Strict conditional</a></li>

<li><a href="Type_shifter" title="Type shifter">Type shifter</a></li>

<li><a href="Universal_grinder" title="Universal grinder">Universal grinder</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">See also</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Cognitive_semantics" title="Cognitive semantics">Cognitive semantics</a></li>

<li><a href="Computational_semantics" title="Computational semantics">Computational semantics</a></li>

<li><a href="Distributional_semantics" title="Distributional semantics">Distributional semantics</a></li>

<li><a href="Formal_grammar" title="Formal grammar">Formal grammar</a></li>

<li><a href="Inferentialism" class="mw-redirect" title="Inferentialism">Inferentialism</a></li>

<li><a href="Logic_translation" title="Logic translation">Logic translation</a></li>

<li><a href="Linguistics_wars" title="Linguistics wars">Linguistics wars</a></li>

<li><a href="Philosophy_of_language" title="Philosophy of language">Philosophy of language</a></li>

<li><a href="Pragmatics" title="Pragmatics">Pragmatics</a></li>

<li><a href="Semantics_of_logic" title="Semantics of logic">Semantics of logic</a></li></ul>

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